sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
 135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
 136        ),
 137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
 179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
 180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 188        ),
 189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 205        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 206        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 209        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 210        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 211        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 212        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 213        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 214        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 216        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 217        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 218        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 219        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 220        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 221        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 222        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 223        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 224        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 225    }
 226
 227    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 228    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 229    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 230    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 231
 232    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 233    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 234    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 235
 236    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 237    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 238
 239    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 240    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 241
 242    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 243    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 244
 245    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 246    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 247
 248    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 249    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 252    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 253
 254    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 255    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 256
 257    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 258    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 259
 260    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 261    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 262
 263    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 264    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 265
 266    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 267    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 268
 269    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 270    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 271
 272    # Whether join hints should be generated
 273    JOIN_HINTS = True
 274
 275    # Whether table hints should be generated
 276    TABLE_HINTS = True
 277
 278    # Whether query hints should be generated
 279    QUERY_HINTS = True
 280
 281    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 282    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 283
 284    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 285    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 286
 287    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 288    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 289
 290    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 291    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 292
 293    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 294    RETURNING_END = True
 295
 296    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 297    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 298
 299    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 300    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 301
 302    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 303    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 306    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 307
 308    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 309    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 310    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 311    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 314    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 315
 316    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 317    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 318
 319    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 320    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 323    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 324
 325    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 326    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 327
 328    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 329    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 330
 331    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 332    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 333
 334    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 335    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 336
 337    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 338    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 339
 340    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 341    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 342
 343    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 344    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 345
 346    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 347    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 348
 349    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 350    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 351
 352    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 353    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 354
 355    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 356    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 357
 358    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 359    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 360
 361    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 362    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 363
 364    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 365    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 366
 367    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 368    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 369
 370    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 371    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 372
 373    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 374    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 375
 376    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 377    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 378
 379    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 380    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 381
 382    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 383    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 384
 385    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 386    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 387
 388    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 389    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 390    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 391
 392    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 393    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 394
 395    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 396    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 397
 398    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 399    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 400
 401    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 402    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 403
 404    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 405    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 406
 407    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 409
 410    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
 412
 413    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 414    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 415    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 416    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 417
 418    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 419    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 420
 421    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 422    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 425    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 426
 427    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 428    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 429
 430    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 431    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 432
 433    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 434    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 435
 436    # The HEX function name
 437    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 438
 439    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 440    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 441
 442    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 443    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 444
 445    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 446    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 447
 448    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 449    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 450
 451    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 452    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 453
 454    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 455    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 456
 457    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 458    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 459
 460    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 461    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 462
 463    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
 464    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
 465
 466    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 467    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 468
 469    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 470    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 471
 472    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 473    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 474
 475    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 476    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 477    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 478    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 479    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 480
 481    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 482        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 483        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 484        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 485        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 486        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 487        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 488        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 489        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 490        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 491        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 492        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 493        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 494        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 495    }
 496
 497    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 498        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 499        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 500        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 501        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 502        "DAYS": "DAY",
 503        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 504        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 505        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 506        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 507    }
 508
 509    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 510        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 511        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 512        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 513        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 514            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 515            if e.args.get("windows")
 516            else ""
 517        ),
 518        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 519    }
 520
 521    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 522
 523    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 524
 525    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 526    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 527
 528    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 529
 530    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 531        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 537        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 539        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 546        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 551        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 555        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 560        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 561        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 562        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 564        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 569        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 570        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 575        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 576        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 578        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 579        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 581        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 584        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 587        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 595        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 600        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 602        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 603        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 606        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 608        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 611        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 612        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 613        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 614        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 615        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 616        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 617        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 618        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 619        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 620        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 621        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 622        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 623        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 624        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 625        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 626    }
 627
 628    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 629    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 630
 631    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 632    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 633        exp.Command,
 634        exp.Create,
 635        exp.Describe,
 636        exp.Delete,
 637        exp.Drop,
 638        exp.From,
 639        exp.Insert,
 640        exp.Join,
 641        exp.MultitableInserts,
 642        exp.Select,
 643        exp.SetOperation,
 644        exp.Update,
 645        exp.Where,
 646        exp.With,
 647    )
 648
 649    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 650    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 651        exp.Binary,
 652        exp.SetOperation,
 653    )
 654
 655    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 656    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 657        exp.Column,
 658        exp.Literal,
 659        exp.Neg,
 660        exp.Paren,
 661    )
 662
 663    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 664        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 665        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 666        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 667        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 668    }
 669
 670    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 671    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 672
 673    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
 674
 675    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 676
 677    __slots__ = (
 678        "pretty",
 679        "identify",
 680        "normalize",
 681        "pad",
 682        "_indent",
 683        "normalize_functions",
 684        "unsupported_level",
 685        "max_unsupported",
 686        "leading_comma",
 687        "max_text_width",
 688        "comments",
 689        "dialect",
 690        "unsupported_messages",
 691        "_escaped_quote_end",
 692        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 693        "_next_name",
 694        "_identifier_start",
 695        "_identifier_end",
 696        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 697    )
 698
 699    def __init__(
 700        self,
 701        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 702        identify: str | bool = False,
 703        normalize: bool = False,
 704        pad: int = 2,
 705        indent: int = 2,
 706        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 707        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 708        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 709        leading_comma: bool = False,
 710        max_text_width: int = 80,
 711        comments: bool = True,
 712        dialect: DialectType = None,
 713    ):
 714        import sqlglot
 715        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 716
 717        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 718        self.identify = identify
 719        self.normalize = normalize
 720        self.pad = pad
 721        self._indent = indent
 722        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 723        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 724        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 725        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 726        self.comments = comments
 727        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 728
 729        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 730        self.normalize_functions = (
 731            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 732        )
 733
 734        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 735        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 736            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 737        )
 738        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 739
 740        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 741
 742        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 743        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 744
 745        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 746
 747    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 748        """
 749        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 750
 751        Args:
 752            expression: The syntax tree.
 753            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 754                it is safer to copy.
 755
 756        Returns:
 757            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 758        """
 759        if copy:
 760            expression = expression.copy()
 761
 762        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 763
 764        self.unsupported_messages = []
 765        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 766
 767        if self.pretty:
 768            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 769
 770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 774            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 775                logger.warning(msg)
 776        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 777            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 778
 779        return sql
 780
 781    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 782        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 783        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 784
 785        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 786            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 787
 788            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 789
 790        return expression
 791
 792    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 793        if (
 794            not expression.parent
 795            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 796            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 797        ):
 798            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 799
 800            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 801        return expression
 802
 803    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 804        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 805            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 806        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 807
 808    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 809        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 810
 811    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 812        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 813
 814    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 815        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 816        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 817
 818        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
 819            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
 820            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
 821
 822        return comment
 823
 824    def maybe_comment(
 825        self,
 826        sql: str,
 827        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 828        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 829        separated: bool = False,
 830    ) -> str:
 831        comments = (
 832            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 833            if self.comments
 834            else None
 835        )
 836
 837        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 838            return sql
 839
 840        comments_sql = " ".join(
 841            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 842        )
 843
 844        if not comments_sql:
 845            return sql
 846
 847        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 848
 849        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 850            return (
 851                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 852                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 853                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 854            )
 855
 856        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 857
 858    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 859        this_sql = (
 860            self.sql(expression)
 861            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 862            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        )
 864        if not this_sql:
 865            return "()"
 866
 867        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 868        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 869
 870    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 871        original = self.identify
 872        self.identify = False
 873        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 874        self.identify = original
 875        return result
 876
 877    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 878        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 879            return name.upper()
 880        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 881            return name.lower()
 882        return name
 883
 884    def indent(
 885        self,
 886        sql: str,
 887        level: int = 0,
 888        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 889        skip_first: bool = False,
 890        skip_last: bool = False,
 891    ) -> str:
 892        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 893            return sql
 894
 895        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 896        lines = sql.split("\n")
 897
 898        return "\n".join(
 899            (
 900                line
 901                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 902                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 903            )
 904            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 905        )
 906
 907    def sql(
 908        self,
 909        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 910        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 911        comment: bool = True,
 912    ) -> str:
 913        if not expression:
 914            return ""
 915
 916        if isinstance(expression, str):
 917            return expression
 918
 919        if key:
 920            value = expression.args.get(key)
 921            if value:
 922                return self.sql(value)
 923            return ""
 924
 925        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 926
 927        if callable(transform):
 928            sql = transform(self, expression)
 929        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 930            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 931
 932            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 933                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 934            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 935                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 936            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 937                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 938            else:
 939                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 940        else:
 941            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 942
 943        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 944
 945    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 946        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 948        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 949
 950    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 951        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 952        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        options = expression.args.get("options")
 954        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 955        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 957        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 958        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 959
 960    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 961        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 962            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 963        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 964        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 965
 966    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 967        return ".".join(
 968            self.sql(part)
 969            for part in (
 970                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 971                expression.args.get("db"),
 972                expression.args.get("table"),
 973                expression.args.get("this"),
 974            )
 975            if part
 976        )
 977
 978    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 979        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 980
 981        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 982            join_mark = ""
 983            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 984
 985        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 986
 987    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 989        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 990        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 991        return f"{position}{this}"
 992
 993    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 994        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 996        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 997        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 998        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 999        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
1000        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
1001        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
1002
1003        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
1004            kind = ""
1005
1006        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
1007
1008    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
1011        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
1012
1013    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
1016            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
1017        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
1018            persisted = " PERSISTED"
1019        else:
1020            persisted = ""
1021
1022        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1023
1024    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1025        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1026
1027    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1028        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1029            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1030        else:
1031            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1032
1033        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1034
1035    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1036        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1037    ) -> str:
1038        this = ""
1039        if expression.this is not None:
1040            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1041            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1042
1043        start = expression.args.get("start")
1044        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1045        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1046        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1047        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1048        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1049        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1050        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1051        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1052        cycle_sql = ""
1053
1054        if cycle is not None:
1055            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1056            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1057
1058        sequence_opts = ""
1059        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1060            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1061            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1062
1063        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1065
1066        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1067
1068    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1069        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1070    ) -> str:
1071        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1072        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1073        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1074
1075    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1076        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1077    ) -> str:
1078        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1079
1080    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1081        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1082
1083    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1084        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1085        if desc is not None:
1086            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1087        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1088        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1089        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
1090
1091    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1094        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1095        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1096        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1097        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1098        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1099        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1100        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1101        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
1102
1103    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1104        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1105
1106    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1107        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1108        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1109        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1110        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1111
1112        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1113
1114        properties_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1116            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1117        ):
1118            properties_sql = self.sql(
1119                exp.Properties(
1120                    expressions=[
1121                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1122                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1123                    ]
1124                )
1125            )
1126
1127            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1128                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1129            elif not self.pretty:
1130                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1131                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1132
1133        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1134        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1135
1136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1137        if expression_sql:
1138            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1139
1140            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1141                postalias_props_sql = ""
1142                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1143                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1144                        exp.Properties(
1145                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1146                        ),
1147                        wrapped=False,
1148                    )
1149                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1150                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1151
1152        postindex_props_sql = ""
1153        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1154            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1155                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1156                wrapped=False,
1157                prefix=" ",
1158            )
1159
1160        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1161        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1162        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1163
1164        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1165        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1166        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1167
1168        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1169        if clustered is None:
1170            clustered_sql = ""
1171        elif clustered:
1172            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1173        else:
1174            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1175
1176        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1177        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1178            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1179                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1180                sep=" ",
1181                prefix=" ",
1182                wrapped=False,
1183            )
1184
1185        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1186
1187        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1188        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1189            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1190                exp.Properties(
1191                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1192                ),
1193                sep=" ",
1194                prefix=" ",
1195                wrapped=False,
1196            )
1197
1198        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1199        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1200        no_schema_binding = (
1201            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1202        )
1203
1204        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1205        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1206
1207        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1208            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1209        else:
1210            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1211
1212        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1213        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1214
1215    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1216        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1217        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1218        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1219        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1220        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1221        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1222        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1223        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1224        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1225        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1226
1227        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1228        if cache is None:
1229            cache_str = ""
1230        elif cache is True:
1231            cache_str = " CACHE"
1232        else:
1233            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1234
1235        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1236        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1237
1238        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1239
1240    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1243        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1244        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1245
1246    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1247        style = expression.args.get("style")
1248        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1249        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1250        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1251        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1252        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1253
1254        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1255
1256    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1257        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1258        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1259
1260    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1261        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1262        if with_:
1263            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1264        return sql
1265
1266    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1267        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1268        recursive = (
1269            "RECURSIVE "
1270            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1271            else ""
1272        )
1273        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1274        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1275
1276        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1277
1278    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1279        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1280        if alias:
1281            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1282
1283        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1284
1285        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1286        if materialized is False:
1287            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1288        elif materialized:
1289            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1290
1291        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1292
1293    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1294        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1296        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1297
1298        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1299            columns = ""
1300            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1301
1302        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1303            alias = self._next_name()
1304
1305        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1306
1307    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1309        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1310            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1311        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1312
1313    def hexstring_sql(
1314        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1315    ) -> str:
1316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1318
1319        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1320            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1321        ):
1322            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1323            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1324            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1325            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1326
1327        if not is_integer_type:
1328            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1329            if binary_function_repr:
1330                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1331                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1332            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1333                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1334                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1335
1336        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1337
1338    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1341            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1342        return this
1343
1344    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1347
1348        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1349            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1350            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1351        else:
1352            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1353            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1354
1355        if escape:
1356            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1357            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1358        else:
1359            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1360            escape_sql = ""
1361
1362        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1363            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1364
1365        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1366
1367    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1368        string = expression.this
1369        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
1370            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
1371
1372        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
1373        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1374
1375    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1377        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1378        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1379        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1380
1381    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1382        nested = ""
1383        values = ""
1384        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1385
1386        type_value = expression.this
1387        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1388            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1389        else:
1390            type_sql = (
1391                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1392                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1393                else type_value
1394            )
1395
1396        if interior:
1397            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1398                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1399                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1400                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1401                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1402                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1403            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1404                nested = f" {interior}"
1405            else:
1406                nested = f"({interior})"
1407
1408        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1409        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1410            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1411            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1412        ):
1413            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1414
1415        return type_sql
1416
1417    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1418        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1419        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1420        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1421        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1422
1423    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1425        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1426        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1427        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1428        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1429        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1430        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1431        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1432        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1433        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1434        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1435        if self.RETURNING_END:
1436            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1437        else:
1438            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1440
1441    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1443        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1444        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1445        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1446        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1447        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1448        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1449        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1450        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1451        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1452        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1453        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1454        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1455        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1456        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1457
1458    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1459        op_type = type(expression)
1460        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1461
1462        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1463        if (
1464            distinct is False
1465            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1466            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1467        ):
1468            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1469
1470        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1471
1472        if distinct is None:
1473            distinct = default_distinct
1474            if distinct is None:
1475                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1476
1477        if distinct is default_distinct:
1478            distinct_or_all = ""
1479        else:
1480            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1481
1482        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1483        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1484
1485        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1486        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1487        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1488
1489        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1490
1491    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1492        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1493            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1494            order = expression.args.get("order")
1495
1496            if limit or order:
1497                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1498                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1499                )
1500
1501                if limit:
1502                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1503                if order:
1504                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1505                return self.sql(select)
1506
1507        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1508        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1509
1510        while stack:
1511            node = stack.pop()
1512
1513            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1514                stack.append(node.expression)
1515                stack.append(
1516                    self.maybe_comment(
1517                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1518                    )
1519                )
1520                stack.append(node.this)
1521            else:
1522                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1523
1524        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1525        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1526        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1527
1528    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1529        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1530        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1531        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1532        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1533        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1534        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1535        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1536
1537    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1538        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1539        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1540        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1541        if not with_ties and rows:
1542            with_ties = " ONLY"
1543        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1544
1545    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1546        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1547            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1549            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1550
1551        agg = expression.this
1552        agg_arg = agg.this
1553        cond = expression.expression.this
1554        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1555        return self.sql(agg)
1556
1557    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1558        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1559            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1560            return ""
1561
1562        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1563
1564    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1565        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1566        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1567        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1568        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1569        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1570        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1571        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1572        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1573        if include:
1574            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1575        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1576        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1577        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1578        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1579        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1580        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1581
1582        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1583
1584    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1585        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1586        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1587        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1588        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1589        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1590        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1591        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1592
1593        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1594
1595        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1596        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1597
1598    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1599        text = expression.name
1600        lower = text.lower()
1601        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1602        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1603        if (
1604            expression.quoted
1605            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1606            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1607            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1608        ):
1609            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1610        return text
1611
1612    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1613        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1614        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1615            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1616
1617        return text
1618
1619    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1620        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1621        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1622            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1623        return text
1624
1625    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1626        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1627        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1628        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1629        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1630        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1631
1632    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1633        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1634        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1635
1636    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1637        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1638        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1639
1640    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1641        root_properties = []
1642        with_properties = []
1643
1644        for p in expression.expressions:
1645            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1646            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1647                with_properties.append(p)
1648            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1649                root_properties.append(p)
1650
1651        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1652        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1653
1654        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1655            with_props = " " + with_props
1656
1657        return root_props + with_props
1658
1659    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1660        if properties.expressions:
1661            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1662        return ""
1663
1664    def properties(
1665        self,
1666        properties: exp.Properties,
1667        prefix: str = "",
1668        sep: str = ", ",
1669        suffix: str = "",
1670        wrapped: bool = True,
1671    ) -> str:
1672        if properties.expressions:
1673            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1674            if expressions:
1675                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1676                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1677        return ""
1678
1679    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1680        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1681
1682    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1683        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1684        for p in properties.expressions:
1685            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1686            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1687                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1688            else:
1689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1690
1691        return properties_locs
1692
1693    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1694        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1695            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1697
1698    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1699        property_cls = expression.__class__
1700        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1701            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1702
1703        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1704        if not property_name:
1705            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1706
1707        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1708
1709    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1710        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1711            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1712            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1713
1714            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1715            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1716                like = f"({like})"
1717
1718            return like
1719
1720        if expression.expressions:
1721            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1722
1723        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1724        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1725
1726    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1727        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1728        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1729        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1730
1731    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1732        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1733        local = expression.args.get("local")
1734        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1735        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1736        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1737        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1738        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1739
1740    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1741        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1743        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1744
1745    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1746        if expression.args.get("default"):
1747            property = "DEFAULT"
1748        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1749            property = "ON"
1750        else:
1751            property = "OFF"
1752        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1753
1754    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1755        if expression.args.get("no"):
1756            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1757        if expression.args.get("default"):
1758            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1759
1760        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1761        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1762
1763    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1764        default = expression.args.get("default")
1765        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1766        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1767        if default or minimum or maximum:
1768            if default:
1769                prop = "DEFAULT"
1770            elif minimum:
1771                prop = "MINIMUM"
1772            else:
1773                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1774            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1775        units = expression.args.get("units")
1776        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1777        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1778
1779    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1780        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1781        always = expression.args.get("always")
1782        default = expression.args.get("default")
1783        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1784        never = expression.args.get("never")
1785
1786        if autotemp is not None:
1787            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1788        elif always:
1789            prop = "ALWAYS"
1790        elif default:
1791            prop = "DEFAULT"
1792        elif manual:
1793            prop = "MANUAL"
1794        elif never:
1795            prop = "NEVER"
1796        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1797
1798    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1799        no = expression.args.get("no")
1800        no = " NO" if no else ""
1801        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1802        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1803        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1804        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1805        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1806
1807    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1808        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1809            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1810        if expression.this:
1811            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1813            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1814
1815        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1816        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1817        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1818
1819    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821
1822        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1823        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1824            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1825        else:
1826            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1827
1828        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1829
1830    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1831        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1832        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1833        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1834        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1835        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1836        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1837        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1838
1839    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1840        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1841        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1842        statistics_sql = ""
1843        if statistics is not None:
1844            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1845        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1846
1847    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1849        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1850        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1851        data_consistency = (
1852            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1853        )
1854        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1855        retention_period = (
1856            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1857        )
1858
1859        if this:
1860            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1861        else:
1862            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1863
1864        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1865
1866        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1867
1868    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1869        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1870        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1871
1872        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1873            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1874        else:
1875            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1876
1877        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1878        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1879        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1880        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1881        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1882        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1883        if is_function:
1884            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1885        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1886
1887        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1888        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1889        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1890        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1891        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1892        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1893        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1894        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1895
1896        if self.RETURNING_END:
1897            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1898        else:
1899            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1900
1901        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1902        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1903        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1904        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1905
1906        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1907        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1908
1909        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1910        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1911
1912    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1913        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1914
1915    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1917        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1919        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1920        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1921
1922    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1923        return expression.name
1924
1925    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1926        return expression.name
1927
1928    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1929        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1930
1931        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1932        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1933
1934        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1935        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1936        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1937
1938        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1939        if expressions:
1940            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1941            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1942
1943        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1944        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1945
1946    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1947        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1948
1949    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1950        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1951        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1952        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1953        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1954        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1955        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1956        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1957        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1958        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1959        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1960        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1961        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1962        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1963
1964    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1965        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1966
1967    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1968        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1969        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1970        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1971        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1972
1973    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1976        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1977        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1978
1979    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1980        return ".".join(
1981            self.sql(part)
1982            for part in (
1983                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1984                expression.args.get("db"),
1985                expression.args.get("this"),
1986            )
1987            if part is not None
1988        )
1989
1990    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1991        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1992        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1993        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1994        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1995        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1996        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1997        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1998        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1999
2000        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2001        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
2002            sample_pre_alias = sample
2003            sample_post_alias = ""
2004        else:
2005            sample_pre_alias = ""
2006            sample_post_alias = sample
2007
2008        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
2009        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
2010        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2011        joins = self.indent(
2012            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2013        )
2014        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
2015
2016        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
2017        if file_format:
2018            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2019            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
2020            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
2021
2022        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2023        if ordinality:
2024            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2025            alias = ""
2026
2027        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2028        if when:
2029            table = f"{table} {when}"
2030
2031        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2032        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2033
2034        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2035        if rows_from:
2036            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2037
2038        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2039
2040    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2041        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2043        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2044        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2045        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2046        joins = self.indent(
2047            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2048        )
2049        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2050
2051    def tablesample_sql(
2052        self,
2053        expression: exp.TableSample,
2054        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2055    ) -> str:
2056        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2057        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2058        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2059        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2060        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2061        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2062        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2063        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2064        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2065
2066        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2067        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2068            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2069
2070        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2071        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2072            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2073
2074        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2075        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2076            expr = f"({expr})"
2077
2078        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2079
2080    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2081        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2082        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2083
2084        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2085
2086        if expression.this:
2087            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2088            if not expressions:
2089                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2090
2091            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2092            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2093            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2094            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2095            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2096            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2097
2098        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2099        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2100
2101        fields = self.expressions(
2102            expression,
2103            "fields",
2104            sep=" ",
2105            dynamic=True,
2106            new_line=True,
2107            skip_first=True,
2108            skip_last=True,
2109        )
2110
2111        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2112        if include_nulls is not None:
2113            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2114        else:
2115            nulls = ""
2116
2117        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2118        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2119        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2120
2121    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2122        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2123        kind = expression.text("kind")
2124        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2125        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2126
2127    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2128        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2129
2130    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2132        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2133        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2134        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2135        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2136        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2137        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2138        if self.RETURNING_END:
2139            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2140        else:
2141            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2142        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2143        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2144
2145    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2146        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2147
2148        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2149        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2150            args = self.expressions(expression)
2151            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2152            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2153            values = (
2154                f"({values})"
2155                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2156                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2157                else values
2158            )
2159            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2160
2161        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2162        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2163        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2164
2165        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2166
2167        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2168            row = tup.expressions
2169
2170            if i == 0 and column_names:
2171                row = [
2172                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2173                ]
2174
2175            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2176
2177        if self.pretty:
2178            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2179            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2180            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2181            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2182            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2183
2184        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2185        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2186        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2187
2188    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2189        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2190
2191    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2192    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2193        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2194        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2195        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2196
2197    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2198        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2199
2200    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2201        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2202        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2203
2204    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2206        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2207
2208    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2209        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2210        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2211
2212    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2213        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2214        if group_by_all is True:
2215            modifier = " ALL"
2216        elif group_by_all is False:
2217            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2218        else:
2219            modifier = ""
2220
2221        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2222
2223        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2224        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2225        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2226
2227        groupings = csv(
2228            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2229            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2230            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2231            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2232            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2233        )
2234
2235        if (
2236            expression.expressions
2237            and groupings
2238            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2239        ):
2240            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2241
2242        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2243
2244    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2245        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2246        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2247
2248    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2249        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2250        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2251        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2252        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2253        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2254        return start + connect
2255
2256    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2257        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2258
2259    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2260        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2261            side = None
2262        else:
2263            side = expression.side
2264
2265        op_sql = " ".join(
2266            op
2267            for op in (
2268                expression.method,
2269                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2270                side,
2271                expression.kind,
2272                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2273            )
2274            if op
2275        )
2276        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2277        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2278        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2279        using = expression.args.get("using")
2280
2281        if not on_sql and using:
2282            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2283
2284        this = expression.this
2285        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2286
2287        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2288        if exprs:
2289            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2290
2291        if on_sql:
2292            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2293            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2294            if using:
2295                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2296            else:
2297                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2298        elif not op_sql:
2299            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2300                return f" {this_sql}"
2301
2302            return f", {this_sql}"
2303
2304        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2305            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2306
2307        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2308        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
2309
2310    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2311        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2312        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2313        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2314
2315    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2316        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2317
2318        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2319        if cross_apply is True:
2320            op = "INNER JOIN "
2321        elif cross_apply is False:
2322            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2323        else:
2324            op = ""
2325
2326        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2327
2328    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2330
2331        if expression.args.get("view"):
2332            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2333            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2334            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2335            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2336            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2337            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2338
2339        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2340        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2341
2342        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2343        if ordinality:
2344            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2345            alias = ""
2346
2347        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2348
2349    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2351
2352        args = [
2353            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2354            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2355            if e
2356        ]
2357
2358        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2359        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2361        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2362        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2363
2364        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2365
2366    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2368        value = expression.expression
2369        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2371        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2372        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2373
2374    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2376        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2378        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2379        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2380        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2381        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2382        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2383
2384    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2385        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2386        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2387        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2388
2389    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2390        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2391
2392    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2393        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2394            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2395            return ""
2396
2397        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2398        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2399        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2400        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2401
2402        if wait is not None:
2403            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2404                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2405            else:
2406                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2407
2408        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2409
2410    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2411        text = expression.this or ""
2412        if expression.is_string:
2413            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2414        return text
2415
2416    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2417        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2418            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2419            text = "".join(
2420                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2421            )
2422
2423        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2424            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2425        )
2426
2427    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2428        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2429        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2430        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2431        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2432        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2433        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2434        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2435        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2436        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2437        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2438        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2439
2440    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2441        return "NULL"
2442
2443    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2444        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2445
2446    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2449        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2450        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2451
2452    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2453        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2454        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2455        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2456        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2457        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2458        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2459        interpolated_values = [
2460            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2461            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2462            else self.sql(e, "this")
2463            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2464        ]
2465        interpolate = (
2466            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2467        )
2468        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2469
2470    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2471        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2472
2473    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2474        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2475
2476    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2477        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2478
2479    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2480        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2481        asc = not desc
2482
2483        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2484        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2485        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2486        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2487        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2488
2489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2490
2491        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2492        nulls_sort_change = ""
2493        if nulls_first and (
2494            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2495        ):
2496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2497        elif (
2498            nulls_last
2499            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2500            and not nulls_are_last
2501        ):
2502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2503
2504        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2505        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2506            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2507            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2508                self.unsupported(
2509                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2510                )
2511                nulls_sort_change = ""
2512            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2513                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2514                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2515            ):
2516                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2517                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2518                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2519
2520                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2521                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2522                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2523                    self.unsupported(
2524                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2525                    )
2526                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2527            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2528                if expression.this.is_int:
2529                    self.unsupported(
2530                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2531                    )
2532                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2533                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2534                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2535                nulls_sort_change = ""
2536
2537        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2538        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2539
2540        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2541
2542    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2543        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2544        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2545
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2547
2548        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2549
2550    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2551        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2552        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2553        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2554        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2555        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2556        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2557        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2558        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2559        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2560        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2561        definition_sqls = [
2562            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2563            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2564        ]
2565        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2566        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2567        body = "".join(
2568            (
2569                partition,
2570                order,
2571                measures,
2572                rows,
2573                after,
2574                pattern,
2575                define,
2576            )
2577        )
2578        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2579        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2580        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2581
2582    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2583        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2584
2585        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2586            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2587        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2588            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2589
2590        return csv(
2591            *sqls,
2592            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2593            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2594            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2595            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2596            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2597            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2598            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2599            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2600            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2601            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2602            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2603            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2604            self.options_modifier(expression),
2605            self.for_modifiers(expression),
2606            sep="",
2607        )
2608
2609    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2610        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2611        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2612
2613    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2614        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
2615        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""
2616
2617    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2618        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2619        return ""
2620
2621    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2622        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2623    ) -> t.List[str]:
2624        return [
2625            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2626            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2627        ]
2628
2629    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2630        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2631        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2632        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2633
2634    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2635        into = expression.args.get("into")
2636        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2637            into.pop()
2638
2639        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2640        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2641        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2643
2644        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2645        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2646            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2647            limit.pop()
2648        else:
2649            top = ""
2650
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2652
2653        if kind:
2654            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2655                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2656            else:
2657                if kind == "STRUCT":
2658                    expressions = self.expressions(
2659                        sqls=[
2660                            self.sql(
2661                                exp.Struct(
2662                                    expressions=[
2663                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2664                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2665                                        else e
2666                                        for e in expression.expressions
2667                                    ]
2668                                )
2669                            )
2670                        ]
2671                    )
2672                kind = ""
2673
2674        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2675        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2676
2677        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2678        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2679        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2680        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2681        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2682            expression,
2683            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2684            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2685            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2686        )
2687
2688        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2689        if expression.args.get("with"):
2690            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2691            expression.pop_comments()
2692
2693        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2694
2695        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2696            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2697                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2698            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2699                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2700            else:
2701                table_kind = ""
2702            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2703
2704        return sql
2705
2706    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2708        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2709        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2710
2711    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2712        if expression.expressions:
2713            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2714        return ""
2715
2716    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2717        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2718        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2719        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2720        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2721        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2722        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2723        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2724
2725    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2728
2729    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2731        kind = expression.text("kind")
2732        if kind:
2733            kind = f"{kind}."
2734        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2735
2736    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2737        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2738
2739    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2741        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2742        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2743        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2744            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2745
2746            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2747            expression.set("sample", None)
2748
2749        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2750        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2752
2753    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2754        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2755        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2756
2757    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2758        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2759
2760        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2761        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2762
2763        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2764            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2765                alias.append("columns", offset)
2766
2767        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2768            columns = alias.columns
2769            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2770        else:
2771            alias = self.sql(alias)
2772
2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2774        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2775            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2776        else:
2777            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2778                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2779            elif offset:
2780                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2781            else:
2782                suffix = alias
2783
2784        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2785
2786    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2787        return ""
2788
2789    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2790        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2791        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2792
2793    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2795        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2796        order = expression.args.get("order")
2797        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2798        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2799        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2800        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2801
2802        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2803
2804        first = expression.args.get("first")
2805        if first is None:
2806            first = ""
2807        else:
2808            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2809
2810        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2811            return f"{this} {alias}"
2812
2813        args = self.format_args(
2814            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
2815        )
2816        return f"{this} ({args})"
2817
2818    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2819        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2820        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2821
2822    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2823        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2824        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2825        end = (
2826            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2827            or "CURRENT ROW"
2828        )
2829
2830        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2831
2832        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
2833        if exclude:
2834            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
2835                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
2836            else:
2837                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
2838
2839        return window_spec
2840
2841    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2843        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2844        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2845
2846    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2849        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2850        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2851
2852    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2853        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2854    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2855        return apply_index_offset(
2856            expression.this,
2857            expression.expressions,
2858            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2859            dialect=self.dialect,
2860        )
2861
2862    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2863        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2864        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2865        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2866
2867    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2868        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2869
2870    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2873            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2874                this = self.wrap(this)
2875            return f"ANY{this}"
2876        return f"ANY {this}"
2877
2878    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2879        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2880
2881    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2883        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2884
2885        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2886            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2887            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2888
2889        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2890
2891        if default:
2892            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2893
2894        statements.append("END")
2895
2896        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2897            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2898
2899        return " ".join(statements)
2900
2901    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2904        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2905
2906    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2907        order = expression.args.get("order")
2908        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2909        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2910
2911    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2912        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2913        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2914        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2915
2916    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2917        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2918
2919        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2920            func_name = "LTRIM"
2921        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2922            func_name = "RTRIM"
2923        else:
2924            func_name = "TRIM"
2925
2926        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2927
2928    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2929        args = expression.expressions
2930        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2931            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2932
2933        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2934            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2935
2936        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2937            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2938
2939        return args
2940
2941    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2942        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2943
2944        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2945        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2946            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2947
2948        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2949
2950    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2951        return self.func(
2952            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2953        )
2954
2955    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2956        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2957        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2958
2959    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2961        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2962        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2963        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2964        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2965        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2966        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2967        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2968        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2969        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2970        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
2971
2972    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2974        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2975        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2976        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2977
2978    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2979        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2980
2981    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2982        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2983        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2984        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2985
2986    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2988
2989    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2990        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2991
2992        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2993            path = self.escape_str(path)
2994
2995        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2996            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2997
2998        return path
2999
3000    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
3001        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
3002            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
3003            if not callable(transform):
3004                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3005                return ""
3006
3007            return transform(self, expression)
3008
3009        if isinstance(expression, int):
3010            return str(expression)
3011
3012        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
3013            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
3014            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
3015        else:
3016            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
3017            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
3018
3019        return escaped
3020
3021    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
3022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
3023
3024    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3025        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3026        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3027
3028        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
3029        if unique_keys is not None:
3030            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
3031        else:
3032            unique_keys = ""
3033
3034        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3035        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3036        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
3037        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
3038
3039        return self.func(
3040            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
3041            *expression.expressions,
3042            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
3043        )
3044
3045    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3046        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
3047
3048    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3049        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3050        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3051        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3052        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3053        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3054        return self.func(
3055            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3056        )
3057
3058    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3061        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3062        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3063        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3064        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3065        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3066        return self.func(
3067            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3068            this,
3069            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3070        )
3071
3072    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3073        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3074        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3075        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3076
3077        if nested_schema:
3078            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3079
3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3081        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3082        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3083        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3084
3085    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3086        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3087
3088    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3091        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3092        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3093        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3094        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3095        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3096        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3097        return self.func(
3098            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3099        )
3100
3101    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3103        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3104        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3105        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3106        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3107        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3108
3109    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3112        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3113        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3114        with_ = (
3115            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3116            if expressions
3117            else ""
3118        )
3119        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3120
3121    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3122        query = expression.args.get("query")
3123        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3124        field = expression.args.get("field")
3125        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3126
3127        if query:
3128            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3129        elif unnest:
3130            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3131        elif field:
3132            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3133        else:
3134            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3135
3136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3137
3138    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3139        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3140
3141    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3142        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3143        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3144            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3145        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3146
3147        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3148            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3149            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3150
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        if this:
3153            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3154            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3155
3156        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3157
3158    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3159        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3160
3161    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3164        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3165        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3166        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3167        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3168
3169    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3170        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3171        parent = expression.parent
3172        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3173        return self.func(
3174            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3175        )
3176
3177    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3178        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3179        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3180
3181    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3182        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3183        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3184        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3185        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3186
3187    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3188        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3189
3190    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3193        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3194
3195    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3196        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3197
3198        parent = expression.parent
3199        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3200
3201        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3202            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3203            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3204
3205            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3206                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3207            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3208                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3209
3210        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3211
3212    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3213        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3214
3215    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3217        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3218        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3219
3220    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3222        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3223        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3224
3225    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3227        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3228        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3229
3230    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3232
3233    def and_sql(
3234        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3235    ) -> str:
3236        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3237
3238    def or_sql(
3239        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3240    ) -> str:
3241        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3242
3243    def xor_sql(
3244        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3245    ) -> str:
3246        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3247
3248    def connector_sql(
3249        self,
3250        expression: exp.Connector,
3251        op: str,
3252        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3253    ) -> str:
3254        if stack is not None:
3255            if expression.expressions:
3256                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3257            else:
3258                stack.append(expression.right)
3259                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3260                    for comment in expression.comments:
3261                        if comment:
3262                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
3263                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3264            return op
3265
3266        stack = [expression]
3267        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3268        ops = set()
3269
3270        while stack:
3271            node = stack.pop()
3272            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3273                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3274            else:
3275                sql = self.sql(node)
3276                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3277                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3278                else:
3279                    sqls.append(sql)
3280
3281        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3282        return sep.join(sqls)
3283
3284    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3286
3287    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3289
3290    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3291        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3292
3293    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3295
3296    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3297        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3298
3299    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3300        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3301
3302    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3303        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3304        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3305        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3306        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3307        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3308        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3309        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3310        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3311        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3312
3313    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3314        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3315        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3316
3317    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3318        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3319            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3320        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3321
3322    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3323        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3324
3325    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3327        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3328        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3329        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3330        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3331        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3332
3333    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3335        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3336        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3337        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3338        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3339        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3340        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3341        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3342        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3343
3344    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3346        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3347        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3348        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3349
3350        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3351            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3352
3353        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3354
3355    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3356        return "BEGIN"
3357
3358    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3359        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3360        if chain is not None:
3361            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3362
3363        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3364
3365    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3366        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3367        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3368        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3369
3370    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3371        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3372
3373        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3374        if dtype:
3375            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3376            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3377            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3378            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3379            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
3380            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
3381
3382        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3383        if default:
3384            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3385
3386        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3387        if comment:
3388            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3389
3390        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3391        if visible:
3392            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3393
3394        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3395        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3396
3397        if not drop and not allow_null:
3398            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3399
3400        if allow_null is not None:
3401            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3402            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3403
3404        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3405
3406    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3408
3409        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3410        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3411
3412        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3413
3414    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3416        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3417            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3418        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3419
3420    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3421        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3423        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3424        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3425        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3426
3427    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3428        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3429            # Remove db from tables
3430            expression = expression.transform(
3431                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3432            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3435
3436    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3437        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3438        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3439        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3440        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3441
3442    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3443        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3444        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
3445            exprs = f"({exprs})"
3446
3447        return f"SET {exprs}"
3448
3449    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3450        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3451
3452        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
3453            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
3454        ):
3455            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3456            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
3457        else:
3458            actions_list = []
3459            for action in actions:
3460                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
3461                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
3462                else:
3463                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
3464                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
3465                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
3466
3467                actions_list.append(action_sql)
3468
3469            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
3470
3471        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3472        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3473        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3474        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3475        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3476        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3477        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3478        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3479
3480        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"
3481
3482    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
3483        sql = self.sql(expression)
3484        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
3485            column_text = " COLUMNS"
3486        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3487            column_text = " COLUMN"
3488        else:
3489            column_text = ""
3490
3491        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"
3492
3493    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3494        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3495        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3496        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3497
3498    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3499        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3500
3501    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3502        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3503
3504        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3505            case = exp.case()
3506            for arg in expression.expressions:
3507                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3508            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3509
3510        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3511
3512        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3513        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3514        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3515
3516    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3517        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3518
3519    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3520        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3521
3522    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3523        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3525        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3526        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3527
3528    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3529        return self.sql(
3530            exp.Cast(
3531                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3532                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3533            )
3534        )
3535
3536    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3537        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3538            return self.func(
3539                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3540            )
3541        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3542
3543    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3544        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3545
3546        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3547            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3548
3549        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3550            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3551                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3552
3553        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3554            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3555                return self.sql(
3556                    exp.cast(
3557                        l / r,
3558                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3559                    )
3560                )
3561
3562        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3563
3564    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3565        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3566        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3567        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3568
3569    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3570        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3571
3572    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3573        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3574
3575    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3576        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3577
3578    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3579        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3580
3581    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3582        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3583
3584    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3585        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3586
3587    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3588        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3589
3590    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3591        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3592
3593    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3594        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3595
3596    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3597        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3598
3599    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3600        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3601
3602    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3603        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3604            return self.sql(
3605                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3606            )
3607        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3608
3609    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3610        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3611
3612    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3613        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3614
3615    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3616        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3617
3618    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3619        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3620
3621    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3622        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3623
3624    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3625        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3626
3627    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3628        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3629
3630    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3631        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3632
3633    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3634        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3635
3636    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3637        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3638
3639    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3640        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3641
3642    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3643        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3644
3645    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3646        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3647
3648    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3649        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3650
3651    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3652        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3653            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3654            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3655
3656        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3657
3658    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3659        this = expression.this
3660        expr = expression.expression
3661
3662        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3663            this, expr = expr, this
3664        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3665            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3666                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3667
3668            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3669
3670        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3671
3672    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3673        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3674        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3675        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3676        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3677        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3678
3679    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3680        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3681        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3682        binary_type = type(expression)
3683
3684        while stack:
3685            node = stack.pop()
3686
3687            if type(node) is binary_type:
3688                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3689                if op_func:
3690                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3691
3692                stack.append(node.right)
3693                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3694                stack.append(node.left)
3695            else:
3696                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3697
3698        return "".join(sqls)
3699
3700    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3701        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3702        if to_clause:
3703            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3704
3705        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3706
3707    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3708        args = []
3709
3710        for key in expression.arg_types:
3711            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3712
3713            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3714                for value in arg_value:
3715                    args.append(value)
3716            elif arg_value is not None:
3717                args.append(arg_value)
3718
3719        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3720            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3721        else:
3722            name = expression.sql_name()
3723
3724        return self.func(name, *args)
3725
3726    def func(
3727        self,
3728        name: str,
3729        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3730        prefix: str = "(",
3731        suffix: str = ")",
3732        normalize: bool = True,
3733    ) -> str:
3734        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3735        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3736
3737    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3738        arg_sqls = tuple(
3739            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3740        )
3741        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3742            return self.indent(
3743                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3744            )
3745        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3746
3747    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3748        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3749
3750    def format_time(
3751        self,
3752        expression: exp.Expression,
3753        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3754        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3755    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3756        return format_time(
3757            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3758            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3759            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3760        )
3761
3762    def expressions(
3763        self,
3764        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3765        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3766        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3767        flat: bool = False,
3768        indent: bool = True,
3769        skip_first: bool = False,
3770        skip_last: bool = False,
3771        sep: str = ", ",
3772        prefix: str = "",
3773        dynamic: bool = False,
3774        new_line: bool = False,
3775    ) -> str:
3776        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3777
3778        if not expressions:
3779            return ""
3780
3781        if flat:
3782            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3783
3784        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3785        result_sqls = []
3786
3787        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3788            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3789            if not sql:
3790                continue
3791
3792            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3793
3794            if self.pretty:
3795                if self.leading_comma:
3796                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3797                else:
3798                    result_sqls.append(
3799                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3800                    )
3801            else:
3802                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3803
3804        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3805            if new_line:
3806                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3807                result_sqls.append("")
3808            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3809        else:
3810            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3811
3812        return (
3813            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3814            if indent
3815            else result_sql
3816        )
3817
3818    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3819        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3820        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3821        if flat:
3822            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3823        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3824
3825    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3826        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3827        if not property_name:
3828            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3829        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3830
3831    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3832        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3833
3834    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3835        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3836
3837    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3839        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3840        expressions = (
3841            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3842        )
3843        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3844
3845    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3847        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3848        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3849
3850    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3851        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3852
3853    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3854        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3855        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3856        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3857        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3858
3859        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3860        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3861            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3862            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3863            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3864            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3865        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3866            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3867                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3868            else:
3869                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
3870        else:
3871            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3872        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3873
3874    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3875        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3876
3877    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3878        table = expression.this
3879        table_alias = ""
3880
3881        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3882        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3883            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3884            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3885
3886        this = self.sql(table)
3887        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3888        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3889        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3890
3891        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3892        if returning:
3893            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3894
3895        sep = self.sep()
3896
3897        return self.prepend_ctes(
3898            expression,
3899            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3900        )
3901
3902    @unsupported_args("format")
3903    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3904        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3905
3906    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3907        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3908            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3909            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3910
3911        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3912        if not fmt:
3913            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3914            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3915
3916        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3917
3918    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3920        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3921        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3922        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3923        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3924
3925    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3927        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3928        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3929        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3930
3931    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3932        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3933
3934    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3935        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3936
3937    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3938    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3939        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3940
3941    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3942    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3944        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3945        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3946        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3947        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3948        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3949        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3950
3951    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3952        return ""
3953
3954    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3956        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3957        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3958        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3959        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3960
3961    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3963        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3964
3965        if having:
3966            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3967
3968        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3969
3970    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3971        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3972        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3973        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3974        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3975        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3976        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3977        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3978        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3979        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3980        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3981        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3982        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3983        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3984
3985    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3986        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3987        if key_block_size:
3988            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3989
3990        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3991        if using:
3992            return f"USING {using}"
3993
3994        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3995        if parser:
3996            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3997
3998        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3999        if comment:
4000            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
4001
4002        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
4003        if visible is not None:
4004            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
4005
4006        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
4007        if engine_attr:
4008            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
4009
4010        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
4011        if secondary_engine_attr:
4012            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
4013
4014        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
4015        return ""
4016
4017    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
4018        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
4019        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
4020
4021    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
4022        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4023        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
4024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4025        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4026        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
4027        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
4028        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4029        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4032        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
4033
4034    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
4035        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
4036            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4037
4038        case = exp.Case().when(
4039            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
4040            expression.args["true"],
4041            copy=False,
4042        )
4043        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
4044        if else_cond:
4045            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
4046
4047        return self.sql(case)
4048
4049    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
4050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4051        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4052        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
4053        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
4054        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
4055        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
4056
4057    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
4058        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
4059
4060    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4061        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4062
4063    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4064        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4065        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4066        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4067        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4068        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4069        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4070
4071    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4073        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4074        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4075
4076    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4078        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4079        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4080
4081    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4082        arg = expression.this
4083        if not arg.type:
4084            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4085
4086            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4087
4088        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4089            return self.sql(arg)
4090
4091        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4092        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4093
4094    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4095        this = expression.this
4096        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4097
4098        if time_format:
4099            return self.sql(
4100                exp.cast(
4101                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4102                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4103                )
4104            )
4105
4106        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4107            return self.sql(this)
4108
4109        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4110
4111    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4112        this = expression.this
4113        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4114            return self.sql(this)
4115
4116        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4117
4118    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4119        this = expression.this
4120        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4121            return self.sql(this)
4122
4123        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4124
4125    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4126        this = expression.this
4127        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4128
4129        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4130            return self.sql(
4131                exp.cast(
4132                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4133                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4134                )
4135            )
4136
4137        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4138            return self.sql(this)
4139
4140        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4141
4142    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4143        return self.sql(
4144            exp.func(
4145                "DATEDIFF",
4146                expression.this,
4147                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4148                "day",
4149            )
4150        )
4151
4152    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4153        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4154            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4155
4156        unit = expression.text("unit")
4157        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4158            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4159
4160        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4161
4162    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4163        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4164
4165        return self.func(
4166            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4167        )
4168
4169    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4170        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4171            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4172            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4173            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4174            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4175
4176        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4177
4178        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4179        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4180            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4181
4182        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4183
4184    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4185        expression.set(
4186            "expressions",
4187            [
4188                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4189                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4190                else e
4191                for e in expression.expressions
4192            ],
4193        )
4194
4195        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4196
4197    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4198        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4199        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4200
4201        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4202
4203    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4204        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4205        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4206
4207        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4208
4209        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4210        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4211
4212        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4213        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4214
4215        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4216        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4217
4218        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4219        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4220
4221        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4222
4223    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4224    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4225    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4226        to = expression.this
4227        value = expression.expression
4228        style = expression.args.get("style")
4229        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4230        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4231
4232        if not to or not value:
4233            return ""
4234
4235        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4236        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4237            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4238
4239        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4240        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4241
4242        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4243        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4244            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4245
4246            style_value = style.name
4247            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4248            if not converted_style:
4249                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4250
4251            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4252
4253            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4254                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4255            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4256                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4257            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4258                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4259            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4260                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4261
4262        if not transformed:
4263            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4264
4265        return self.sql(transformed)
4266
4267    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4268        this = expression.this
4269        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4270            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4271            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4272
4273        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4274            return f".{this}"
4275
4276        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4277        return (
4278            f"[{this}]"
4279            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4280            else f".{this}"
4281        )
4282
4283    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4284        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4285        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4286
4287    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4288        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4289            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4290
4291            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4292
4293        return expression
4294
4295    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4296        this = expression.this
4297        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
4298            self.unsupported(
4299                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
4300            )
4301            return self.sql(this)
4302
4303        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4304            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4305            mods = sorted(
4306                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4307                key=lambda x: 0
4308                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4309                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4310            )
4311
4312            if mods:
4313                mod = mods[0]
4314                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4315                this.meta["inline"] = True
4316                mod.this.replace(this)
4317                return self.sql(expression.this)
4318
4319            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4320
4321            if agg_func:
4322                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4323                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
4324
4325        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4326
4327    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4328        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4329        if self.pretty:
4330            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4331        return string
4332
4333    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4334        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4335
4336        if expression.expressions:
4337            upper = option.upper()
4338
4339            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4340            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4341
4342            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4343            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4344            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4345            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4346
4347        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4348
4349        if not value:
4350            return option
4351
4352        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4353
4354        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4355
4356    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4357        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4358        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4359            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4360            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4361            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4362        else:
4363            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4364            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4365            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4366
4367        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4368        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4369
4370        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4371        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4372
4373        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4374        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4375
4376        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4377        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4378
4379        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4380
4381    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4383        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4384
4385        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4386        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4387        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4388        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4389
4390        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4391        params = self.expressions(
4392            expression,
4393            key="params",
4394            sep=sep,
4395            new_line=True,
4396            skip_last=True,
4397            skip_first=True,
4398            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4399        )
4400
4401        if params:
4402            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4403                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4404            elif not self.pretty:
4405                params = f" {params}"
4406
4407        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4408
4409    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4410        return ""
4411
4412    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4413        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4414        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4415        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4416        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4417        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4418
4419        if filter_col or retention_period:
4420            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4421
4422        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4423
4424    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4425        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4426    ) -> str:
4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4428        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4429        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4430        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4431
4432    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4434        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4435        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4436
4437    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4438        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4439
4440    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4442        expr = expression.expression
4443
4444        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4445            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4446            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4447        else:
4448            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4449
4450        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4451
4452    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4453        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4454            return self.sql(expression.this)
4455
4456        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4457
4458    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4459        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4460        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4461
4462        if lower and upper:
4463            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4464        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4465
4466    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4467        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4468        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4469        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4470        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4471        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4472        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4473
4474        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4475
4476    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4477        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4478
4479        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4480        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4481            fill_pattern = "' '"
4482
4483        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4484
4485    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4486        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4487        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4488
4489    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4490        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4491
4492        parent = expression.parent
4493        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4494            parent = parent.parent
4495
4496        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4497            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4498
4499        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4500            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4501
4502        return self.sql(generate_series)
4503
4504    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4505        exprs = expression.expressions
4506        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4507            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4508        else:
4509            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4510
4511        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4512
4513    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4514        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4515            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4516
4517        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4518        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4519        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4520
4521        if source_tz and timestamp:
4522            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4523                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4524            )
4525
4526        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4527
4528        return self.sql(expr)
4529
4530    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4532        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4533
4534        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4535
4536        if _with is None:
4537            with_sql = ""
4538        elif not _with:
4539            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4540        else:
4541            with_sql = " WITH"
4542
4543        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4544
4545        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4546
4547    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4548        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4549            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4550
4551        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4552        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4553        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4554
4555        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4556        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4557
4558        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4559
4560    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4561        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4562        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4563        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4564        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4565        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4566
4567    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4568        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4569        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4570        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4571        return res
4572
4573    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4574        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4575        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4576        empty = (
4577            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4578            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4579            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4580        )
4581
4582        error = expression.args.get("error")
4583        error = (
4584            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4585            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4586            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4587        )
4588
4589        if error and empty:
4590            error = (
4591                f"{empty} {error}"
4592                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4593                else f"{error} {empty}"
4594            )
4595            empty = ""
4596
4597        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4598
4599        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4600
4601    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4602        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4603        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4604
4605    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4607        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4608
4609        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4610        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4611
4612        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4613        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4614
4615        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4616
4617        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4618
4619    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4620        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4621
4622        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4623        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4624        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4625            parent = expression.parent
4626            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4627                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4628                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4629            else:
4630                this = expression.this
4631                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4632                if this.find(exp.Column):
4633                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4634                    this_sql = (
4635                        self.expressions(this)
4636                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4637                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4638                    )
4639
4640                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4641
4642        return array_agg
4643
4644    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4646        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4647
4648        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4649
4650    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4651        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4652
4653        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4654        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4655
4656        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4657        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4658
4659        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4660
4661        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4662
4663        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4664
4665    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4667        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4668        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4669
4670        return f"{this}{columns}"
4671
4672    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4674
4675        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4676        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4677
4678        return f"{kind}{this}"
4679
4680    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4681        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4682        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4683            func = f"*{func}"
4684
4685        return func
4686
4687    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4689        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4690        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4691        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4692        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4693
4694        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4695
4696    @unsupported_args("format")
4697    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4698        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4699
4700    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4701        this = expression.this
4702        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4703
4704        if zone:
4705            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4706            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4707            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4708            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4709                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4710            )
4711
4712        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4713
4714    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4715        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4716            return self.sql(
4717                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4718            )
4719
4720        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4721
4722    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4723        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4724        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4725        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4726        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4727
4728    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4729        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4730            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4731
4732        start_ts = exp.cast(
4733            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4734        )
4735
4736        return self.sql(
4737            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4738        )
4739
4740    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4741        dim = expression.expression
4742
4743        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4744        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4745            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4746                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4747            dim = None
4748
4749        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4750        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4751            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4752
4753        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4754
4755    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4757        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4758        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4759        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4760
4761        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4762
4763    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4765        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4766
4767        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4768
4769    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4771        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4772        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4773        return f"{this}{value}"
4774
4775    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4776        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4777        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4778            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4779
4780        return self.func(
4781            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4782            this_sql,
4783            expression.args.get("time"),
4784            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4785            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4786        )
4787
4788    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4789        return (
4790            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4791        )
4792
4793    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4794        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4795        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4796
4797        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4798        if properties:
4799            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4800
4801        return encode
4802
4803    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4805        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4806
4807        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4808        if column_def:
4809            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4810
4811        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4812        if alias:
4813            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4814
4815        return include
4816
4817    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4818        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4819        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4820
4821    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
4822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4824        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
4825        return f"{this}{expr}"
4826
4827    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4828        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4829        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4830        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4831
4832    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4833        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4834    ) -> str:
4835        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4836        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4837
4838        every = expression.args["every"]
4839        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4840            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4841
4842        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4843
4844    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4845        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4846        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4847
4848        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4849
4850    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4851        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4852        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4853        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4854
4855    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4857        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4858        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4860        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4861        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4862        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4863        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4864
4865    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4867        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4868        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4869        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4870        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4871        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4872        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4873
4874    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4875        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4876        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4877        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4878
4879    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4880        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4881        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4882
4883    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4884        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4886        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4887        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4888        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4889
4890    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4891        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4892        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4894        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4896        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4897        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4898        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4899        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4900        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4901        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4902        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4903        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4904        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4905        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4906
4907    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4909        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4910        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4911        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4912        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4913        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4914        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4915        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4916        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4917
4918    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4920        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4921
4922    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4924        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4925        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4926        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4927        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4928
4929    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4930        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4931
4932    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4933        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4934        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4935        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4936
4937        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4938        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4939            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4940
4941        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4942
4943    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4944        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4946        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4947        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4948        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4949
4950        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4951
4952        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4953
4954    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4955        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4956        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4957
4958    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4959        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4960
4961    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4962        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4963
4964    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4965        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4966
4967    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4968        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4969        return ""
4970
4971    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
4972        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
4973        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
4974        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
4975        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4976        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4978        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4979
4980        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
4981            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
4982        else:
4983            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
4984
4985    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
4986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4987        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4988        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
4989        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"